Organization for Islamic Learning

Islamic Rationalism and Scientific Tradition

The Mu`tazilite and Shi`ite Muslims who were interested in rationalist theology also took interest in positive sciences, especially medicine and astronomy. The translation of older texts, primarily Greek but also from Sanskrit tradition into Arabic in the 9th-10th century was the most important sort of scientific activity. The full Greek philosophic and scientific heritage became freely and accurately available in Arabic. Muslim and Christian translators worked closely to develop technical vocabulary and a pattern of syntax, which would allow scientific works to be carried on fluently in Arabic. The advance in sciences was due to a practical orientation of Islamic civilization. The astronomer Muhammad al-Khwarazmi (d. 844) – from whose name the term algorism is derived, was famous for his arithmetical studies. Well-equipped observatories were built and observations were refined still further than in earlier times. Arabic-writing mathematicians developed spherical trigonometry, and the new openings were in the area of algebra (another term derived from Arabic), the area in which Muslim mathematicians were able to demonstrate the solutions of equations of higher degrees, pieced out bit by bit. Khwarazmi popularized the system of place-value numerals with a zero found in the Sanskrit tradition.

In physical studies, such as optics and music, Muslim scholars developed the study of musical proportions as an introduction to proportion generally. In nature studies, medicine received great attention. The main area of interest among Muslim scientists was human anatomy and its pathology. Muslim physicians recognized the Greek and Syriac medical tradition and tended to be tied to the classical heritage. Ibn Zakariyya alRazi (d. 934) explained the distinction between measles and smallpox. The rulers maintained high standards in the public hospitals and provided for the examination of physicians. The practical study of plant and animal breeding and agriculture were highly advanced. Chemistry studies were undertaken to search for ways of changing one substance into another, and in particular, less valuable metals into silver and gold. Alchemical tradition accounted for the four simple elemental substances of which all compounds were composed in different proportions: air (hot, moist), fire (hot, dry), water (cold, moist), earth (cold, dry). On this basis, all ordinary substances were regarded as compounds, which could presumably be taken apart and put together again differently.

All aspects of nature were studied in order to understand the uniform, logical, rational principles behind the apparent diversity of manifestations. Human being was studied both as body (as understood in medicine) and as rational being (capable of fulfilling his/her own purpose). At the practical level, medicine involved the training necessary to apply techniques that demonstrated tact and insight in the treatment of patients. Medical practice was based on a tradition of clinical observation, which became the source for encyclopedic works like the Canon (al-Qanun) of Ibn Sina (d. 1037). Understanding human nature was critical in order to discover rational principles that could help direct human life to create an ideal society. Ethics and politics were regarded as rational knowledge necessary to harmonize human existence in the universe. Muslim achievements in rational and scientific studies founded upon largely Greek tradition were in turn translated into Latin in medieval times, which sparked the Renaissance in Europe in 16th century.

© Organization for Islamic Learning October 2007